Crime & Delinquency RSS feed -- OnlineFirst Articles

Reconsidering Hispanic Gang Membership and Acculturation in a Multivariate Context

Miller, H. V., Barnes, J. C., Hartley, R. D. — Wed, 18 Nov 2009 14:42:58 PST

Previous qualitative research has suggested that Hispanic gang membership is linked to the process of acculturation. Specifically, studies have indicated that those who are less assimilated into mainstream American or "Anglo" society are at greater risk for joining gangs. Building on these observations, this study examines the relationship between acculturation and gang membership within a theoretically and empirically informed multivariate framework. Based on a sample of Hispanic adolescents residing in the American Southwest, results largely supported previous qualitative studies that have suggested that a number of factors, including acculturation, are necessary to an understanding of gang membership within this demographic. Findings from logistic regression analyses indicated that respondents’ grade in school, neighborhood drug availability, level of ethnic marginalization, and level of acculturation were all significantly associated with self-reported gang membership. Results also suggested that marginalization may partially mediate the effects of acculturation.

Examining Diffusion and Arrest Avoidance Practices Among Johns

Holt, T. J., Blevins, K. R., Kuhns, J. B. — Wed, 14 Oct 2009 17:26:53 PDT

Research from the rational choice perspective found that some offenders adapt to law enforcement strategies using various tactics to decrease the risk of detection. Few have considered the effect that this has for criminals who engage in high and low visibility offending, as well as the ways in which arrest avoidance practices are communicated between and among offenders. In this qualitative study, the authors explore these issues using a sample of posts from Web forums for the customers of prostitutes in 10 cities in the United States. This analysis finds that johns openly discussed, shared, and used a variety of methods to decrease the risk of arrest as well as informal threats, such as assault or theft. Implications for law enforcement and rational choice theory are also discussed.

Problem-Oriented Policing and Open-Air Drug Markets: Examining the Rockford Pulling Levers Deterrence Strategy

Corsaro, N., Brunson, R. K., McGarrell, E. F. — Wed, 14 Oct 2009 17:26:52 PDT

Problem-oriented policing strategies have been regarded as promising approaches for disrupting open-air drug markets in vulnerable communities. Pulling levers deterrence interventions, which are consistent with the problem-oriented framework, have shown potential as an effective mechanism for reducing and preventing youth, gun, and gang violence. This study examines the effect of a strategic, pulling levers intervention that was implemented by law enforcement officials in Rockford, Illinois, to address drug markets in a high crime neighborhood. The initiative builds on a similar effort developed in High Point, North Carolina, and represents an extension of pulling levers that was originally developed in Boston. The impact evaluation uses a mixed method of quantitative hierarchical growth curve models and qualitative interviews with residents. Study findings suggest that the Rockford strategy was associated with a statistically significant and substantive reduction in crime, drug, and nuisance offenses in the target neighborhood. Results from this examination have implications for both research and public policy.

Race, Pre- and Postdetention, and Juvenile Justice Decision Making

Leiber, M. J. — Tue, 15 Sep 2009 15:49:30 PDT

A detailed examination was conducted of the factors associated with pre- and postadjudication secure detention, including secure detention as a dispositional sentence and the effects of secure detention on decision making that further contribute to cumulative disadvantage for African Americans. The research was based on interpretations of the symbolic threat thesis, with emphasis on the stereotyping of African Americans as threatening, delinquent, and/or in need of confinement, to study decision making in one juvenile court jurisdiction. The results reveal that legal factors were most often predictors of each type of secure detention and decision making at other stages, but so too was race individually and in combination with legal and extralegal considerations and indirectly through secure detention. The relationships, however, did not always result in disadvantageous outcomes.

Organizational Failure and the Disbanding of Local Police Agencies

King, W. R. — Tue, 08 Sep 2009 14:32:08 PDT

Police organizations are a ubiquitous aspect of the landscape of criminal justice in the United States. Yet, little attention has been paid to the failure of police agencies and the consequences of such failure. This article uses structural contingency theory and organizational institutional theory to explore why 31 police agencies were disbanded during the 1990s. The findings indicate that agencies disband because they face significant environmental changes in their contingency and institutional environments. Contingency reasons for disbanding are mostly related to budgetary constraints. Institutional reasons usually involve agencies that engage in behaviors that violate the expectations of powerful sovereigns. Overall, police agencies disband because they cannot adapt to changes in their contingency and institutional environments or they change in inappropriate ways, and their small organizational size does not provide a sufficient buffer against external intrusion from the institutional environment, which results in disbanding.

A Multivariate Analysis of the Sociodemographic Predictors of Methamphetamine Production and Use

Armstrong, T. A., Armstrong, G. S. — Fri, 21 Aug 2009 11:02:51 PDT

To date, research testing the community characteristics associated with methamphetamine production and use has found that the community-level sociodemographic predictors of methamphetamine production and use vary from those of drug use in general. In this study, the authors furthered the research in this area using data from all 102 counties in Illinois. These data included measures of sociodemographic characteristics taken from the U.S. census, measures of methamphetamine production and use, and a measure of arrests for controlled-substance violations. Negative binomial regression models showed that poverty and the racial and ethnic compositions of communities were the strongest and most consistent predictors of the authors’ methamphetamine measures. The results also showed that the sociodemographic characteristics associated with methamphetamine measures were different in important ways from those associated with arrests for controlled-substance violations.

"Deterrability" Among Gang and Nongang Juvenile Offenders: Are Gang Members More (or Less) Deterrable Than Other Juvenile Offenders?

Maxson, C. L., Matsuda, K. N., Hennigan, K. — Thu, 20 Aug 2009 11:45:21 PDT

This study investigates the effect of the threat of legal sanctions on intentions to commit three types of offenses with a representative sample of 744 officially adjudicated youth with varying histories of offenses and gang involvement. In a departure from previous research, the authors find small severity effects for property crimes that are not negated by past offending experience, morality, or anticipated loss of respect from adults or peers. Gang members appear to be vulnerable to the effects of certainty of punishment for vehicle theft. These results challenge the current crime policy of increased reliance on punishment to deter gang crime but suggest that increasing gang members’ certainty of apprehension might hold some promise for reduction of some gang crime.

Understanding Parole Officers' Responses to Sanctioning Reform

Steiner, B., Travis, L. F., Makarios, M. D. — Thu, 20 Aug 2009 11:45:21 PDT

There are constant calls for reform in the criminal justice system, but observers have often reported that criminal justice reform is an exceptionally challenging task. As with any organizational change, resistance to new policies, procedures, and practices comes from a variety of sources. The relatively broad discretionary authority vested in line-level personnel often contributes to the difficulty associated with implementing change in criminal justice agencies. There is ample evidence that line staff resistance to organizational reform can undermine the implementation of organizational change. In this study, the authors examine the effects of the state of Ohio’s transition to graduated sanctioning guidelines on parole officers—in particular, how these reforms were perceived by the key actors in the sanctioning process: parole officers. Findings from a statewide survey revealed that officers were generally dissatisfied with the restrictions on their discretion resulting from the reform. Analyses revealed that organizational factors such as officers’ perceptions concerning how the sanctioning policy was implemented and its intended purposes were more influential than individual characteristics in shaping officers’ views concerning the efficacy of the reform.

The Lost Cause? Examining the Southern Culture of Honor Through Defensive Gun Use

Copes, H., Kovandzic, T. V., Miller, J. M., Williamson, L. — Wed, 12 Aug 2009 11:06:11 PDT

This article reconsiders the "Southern culture of honor" thesis, which has enjoyed prevalence in the social sciences since the first half of the 20th century. The bulk of researchers investigating the link among Southern residence, culture of honor, and violence have focused on attitudinal measures of violence through surveys and ethnographic experiments indicating preferences and opinions toward engaging in hypothesized violence. The current research measures respondents’ actual violent behaviors in a national survey of defensive gun use (DGU). Although the results failed to support a relationship between Southern residence and defensive gun use, respondents’ age and victimization were significant. This finding is dissonant with the historical literature that suggests that the rural Southern White male is prone to a violent defense of honor; as such, the article orients discussion around the further theoretical advancement of the culture-of-honor perspective.

Childhood Psychopathology Predicts Adolescence-Onset Offending: A Longitudinal Study

Buck, N., Verhulst, F., van Marle, H., van der Ende, J. — Wed, 22 Jul 2009 08:10:35 PDT

Moffitt, Caspi, Harrington, and Milne (2002) found in a follow-up study that many of the supposedly adolescence-limited offenders had committed offenses past adolescence. This finding raises the question of whether adulthood starts later or whether there are two distinct delinquency types, adolescence limited and adolescence onset, each with its own etiology. The present study tested whether the adolescence-onset group could be predicted by childhood psychopathology, as compared to the adolescence-limited and no-offender groups. In sum, 355 boys and girls were included, who reported on their emotional and behavioral problems when they were 11 to 13 years old and on their self-reported criminal behavior 8 to 13 years later. The findings lend support to the hypothesis that adolescence-onset offenders can be distinguished from adolescence-limited offenders.

Institutional Misconduct, Delinquent Background, and Rearrest Frequency Among Serious and Violent Delinquent Offenders

Trulson, C. R., DeLisi, M., Marquart, J. W. — Mon, 20 Jul 2009 16:32:10 PDT

This study examines the relationship of institutional misconduct to postrelease rearrest, controlling for a battery of preincarceration variables typically found to influence recidivism among institutionalized delinquent offenders. Based on data from 1,804 serious and violent male delinquents released from a large southern juvenile correctional system, this research found limited support for institutional misconduct as a determinant of recidivism. Of all measures of misconduct, only the rate of total misconduct infractions was related to postrelease rearrest, and this effect was generally small and found only in the rearrest frequency model, not the dichotomous rearrest model. Implications for research and practice are explored.

Confronting Delinquency: Probations Officers' Use of Coercion and Client-Centered Tactics to Foster Youth Compliance

Schwalbe, C. S., Maschi, T. — Mon, 20 Jul 2009 16:32:09 PDT

Youthful compliance with juvenile court mandates is a cornerstone of effective probation practice. Despite this, research has not examined probation strategies for encouraging and enforcing youthful compliance with probation conditions. This study describes the use of confrontational tactics and client-centered approaches reported by probation officers in their supervision of delinquent youths. The study was conducted with data from a Web-based survey of probation (N = 308). Results indicate that officers balanced confrontational approaches with client-centered approaches. Officers employed confrontational tactics more frequently than client-centered strategies for youths with substance use problems, with younger youths, and with African American females. Alternatively, officers reported more client-centered approaches with females who had higher histories of prior service utilization and with youths who were perceived by officers to be honest. These findings open new avenues for research on the effectiveness of confrontation and client-centered approaches toward an evidence base for effective probation practice.

Modeling Isomorphism on Policing Innovation: The Role of Institutional Pressures in Adopting Community-Oriented Policing

Burruss, G. W., Giblin, M. J. — Tue, 14 Jul 2009 15:33:19 PDT

Recent research on innovation diffusion points to a number of key factors that stimulate the need for change or facilitate the adoption of innovations. Empirical studies examining the process of innovation—that is, how ideas are spread—are less common and often lack a theoretical foundation. The present study uses institutional theory to develop a model of community-policing adoption in municipal law enforcement agencies. The fit of the institutional model is assessed using secondary data and structural equation modeling. The results show that centrist forces—including publications, the professionalization of law enforcement, and other law enforcement agencies—shape the organizational adoption of community-policing reforms. The implications of the research for communicating innovations are addressed.

Community Characteristics and Methamphetamine Use in a Rural State: An Analysis of Preincarceration Usage by Prison Inmates

Roussell, A., Holmes, M. D., Anderson-Sprecher, R. — Wed, 01 Jul 2009 13:22:01 PDT

Social disorganization theory attempts to explain the relationships of community characteristics and patterns of illicit drug use, but methamphetamine poses a problem for this perspective. Methamphetamine use is prevalent in rural areas, where greater community social organization may contribute to its usage, a possibility examined here using data from a highly rural state. Data were collected from a population of prisoners entering Wyoming state correctional facilities from July 2005 to June 2006. Hierarchical linear models estimated the effects of individual- and county-level variables on preincarceration amphetamine/methamphetamine use and severity of use. Results indicate that individual-level variables predict use, whereas county-level variables predict severity of use. The effects of individual-level measures of social control were consistent with the social disorganization model, whereas the effects of county-level variables provided support for the social organization argument. Implications of the findings for a multidimensional, multilevel conceptualization of the social organization/disorganization continuum are discussed.

Determinants of Police Strength in Large U.S. Cities During the 1990s: A Fixed-Effects Panel Analysis

McCarty, W. P., Ren, L., Zhao, J. S. — Fri, 05 Jun 2009 15:34:58 PDT

The 1990s represented a unique decade in which to analyze the determinants of police strength in the United States. This decade was a time in which crime initially increased, then substantially decreased. Furthermore, this decade also was characterized by increases in the minority population throughout large American cities. Finally, the 1990s were characterized by increasing police budgets. These realities have direct implications for the competing theories of police growth. This research examines the determinants of police strength in large U.S. cities from 1990 to 2000. A fixed-effects panel analysis was used to assess the number of sworn police officers per 100,000 population. The findings support the resource dependency and social conflict perspectives. Additionally, no support was found for the rational public choice perspective.

Associations Between Order Maintenance Policing and Violent Crime: Considering the Mediating Effects of Residential Context

Kane, R. J., Cronin, S. W. — Thu, 28 May 2009 09:46:05 PDT

The present study examined the relationships between order maintenance arrests and violent crime across and within communities in a major metropolitan setting. Integrating the macro-deterrence and systemic model perspectives, the research tested the direct effects of vigorous disorder arrests on robbery and assault with a deadly weapon (i.e., violent street crime), as well as the interactive effects of Disorder Arrests x Residential Integration (mobility and owner-occupied dwelling) on violent crime. The research found no direct relationship between disorder arrests and violent crime, but it found that disorder arrests in conjunction with decreased residential integration was associated with violent crime reductions. The results suggest that police disorder arrests may produce the strongest violence reduction results in areas of decreased residential attachment; however, as residential integration increases, the effects of order maintenance arrests on violent crime diminish. The study discusses the implications for shared social control agency in communities, as well as future research directions.

Criminal Offending and Learning Disabilities in New Zealand Youth: Does Reading Comprehension Predict Recidivism?

Rucklidge, J. J., McLean, A. P., Bateup, P. — Wed, 27 May 2009 13:52:49 PDT

Sixty youth (16-19 years) from two youth prison sites participate in a prospective study examining criminal offending and learning disabilities (LD), completing measures of estimated IQ, attention, reading, and mathematical and oral language abilities. Prevalence rates of LDs exceed those of international studies, with 91.67% of the offenders showing significant difficulties in at least one area of achievement (defined as 1 SD or more below the normative mean), the mean reading comprehension score falling at the 4th percentile. Four years post assessment, recidivism rates among released youth (n = 51) are investigated. After the investigators control for other known risk factors (including delinquency and estimated IQ), reading comprehension predicts future offending across measures, capturing rate, seriousness, and persistence of offending post release.

Propensity for Violence Among Homeless and Runaway Adolescents: An Event History Analysis

Crawford, D. M., Whitbeck, L. B., Hoyt, D. R. — Wed, 20 May 2009 10:08:50 PDT

Little is known about the prevalence of violent behaviors among homeless and runaway adolescents or the specific behavioral factors that influence violent behaviors across time. In this longitudinal study of 300 homeless and runaway adolescents aged 16 to 19 at baseline, the authors use event history analysis to assess the factors associated with acts of violence over 3 years, controlling for individual propensities and time-varying behaviors. Results indicate that females, nonminorities, and nonheterosexuals were less likely to engage in violence across time. Those who met criteria for substance abuse disorders (i.e., alcohol abuse, alcohol dependence, drug abuse) were more likely to engage in violence. A history of caretaker abuse was associated with violent behaviors, as were street survival strategies such as selling drugs, participating in gang activity, and associating with deviant peers. Simply having spent time directly on the streets at any specific time point also increased the likelihood for violence.

The Public Safety Impact of Community Notification Laws: Rearrest of Convicted Sex Offenders

Freeman, N. J. — Mon, 18 May 2009 13:26:18 PDT

Sex offender management is one of the highest-profile issues in public safety today. Although states have enacted community notification laws as a means to protect communities from sexual offending, limited research has been conducted to examine the impact of these laws on public safety. As such, this study used a quasi-experimental design to examine the relationship, if any, between community notification legislation and sex offender rearrest. Sex offenders who were subject to community notification (n = 10,592, 61.7%) were compared to sex offenders who were not subject to community notification requirements (n = 6,573, 38.3%). Results indicate that sex offenders subject to community notification were rearrested twice as quickly (for a sexual offense) and 47% more quickly (for a nonsexual offense) than those not subject to community notification. The findings yield implications for sex offender interventions and public policies and suggest that notification may not be an effective strategy for significantly reducing sexual offenses.

How Justice System Officials View Wrongful Convictions

Smith, B., Zalman, M., Kiger, A. — Fri, 08 May 2009 08:50:20 PDT

The wrongful conviction of factually innocent people is a growing concern within the United States. Reforms generated by this concern are predicated in part on the views of justice system participants. The authors surveyed judges, police officials, prosecutors, and defense lawyers in Michigan regarding their views of why wrongful convictions occur. The findings reveal that all groups acknowledge error and inaccuracy among justice system participants. In general, police and prosecutors believe that error levels are lowest, judges estimate higher error levels, and defense attorneys rank errors higher than other respondents. A majority of police, prosecutors, and judges believe that wrongful convictions do not occur with sufficient frequency to warrant system reforms, whereas a majority of defense attorneys believe that procedural changes are warranted. The findings reveal distinct occupational perspectives in respondents’ attitudes concerning wrongful conviction.

Offender Perceptions of Graduated Sanctions

Wodahl, E. J., Ogle, R., Kadleck, C., Gerow, K. — Fri, 08 May 2009 08:50:20 PDT

Finding credible alternatives to revocation for offenders who violate the conditions of their community supervision has emerged as a salient issue in the corrections field. A number of jurisdictions have turned to graduated sanctions as an alternative to revocation. This study addresses one of the major gaps in the research on graduated sanctions by examining perceptions of graduated sanction severity through the administration of surveys to offenders under active supervision. Survey results revealed several important findings. First, offenders do not view jail as being substantially more punitive than community-based sanctions such as community service or electronic monitoring. Second, offenders viewed treatment-oriented sanctions as being more punitive than other graduated sanctions. Third, offender perceptions of graduated sanctions were influenced by a variety of individual characteristics such as gender, age, and education level.

Risky Relationships? Assortative Mating and Women's Experiences of Intimate Partner Violence

Carbone-Lopez, K., Kruttschnitt, C. — Mon, 04 May 2009 09:50:47 PDT

Research indicates that female offenders are far more likely to have experienced intimate partner violence than women in the general population. Despite extensive research on women’s pathways into offending, very little is known about why these women are at increased risk for partner violence. The authors use data from a sample of incarcerated women to explore various explanations for this association, paying particular attention to assortative mating patterns and the role of lifestyle. Findings indicate that, net of other risk factors, relationships with criminally involved partners increase women’s risks of victimization. Such findings have implications for assortative mating theory, the study of female offenders, and studies of the community-level impact of incarceration.

Implications of Different Outcome Measures for an Understanding of Inmate Misconduct

Steiner, B., Wooldredge, J. — Tue, 28 Apr 2009 11:18:36 PDT

Quantitative studies geared toward understanding differences among prison inmates in their odds of committing rule infractions have grown over the last decade but with little consistency in the models examined, especially regarding the types of rule violations examined. These differences have, in turn, contributed to an increasingly complex picture of inmate misconduct that appears counterproductive for both theory and practice. The study described here was designed to assess the ramifications of examining different outcome measures for quantitative analyses of the subject. Findings revealed that three of the nine models examined produced unique information regarding the effects of various inmate predictors, including the models of physical assaults (on inmates and/or staff), drug/alcohol use, and other nonviolent misconduct. Analyses also uncovered several new substantive findings on the topic. Findings are discussed in light of their relevance for practice as well as theories of inmate behavior.

Stability of Delinquent Peer Associations: A Biosocial Test of Warr's Sticky-Friends Hypothesis

Fri, 10 Apr 2009 09:44:35 PDT

The study of delinquent peers has remained at the forefront of much criminological research and theorizing. One issue of particular importance involves the factors related to why people associate with and maintain a sustained involvement with delinquent peers. Although efforts have been made to address these questions, relatively little attempt has been made to understand these relationships from a biosocial perspective. This gap in the literature is addressed in an analysis of twins from the National Longitudinal Study of adolescent Health (Add Health). The results of the univariate behavioral genetic models reveal that genetic factors account for between 58% and 74% of the variance in the association with delinquent peers, with the remaining variance attributable to environmental factors. Bivariate Cholesky decomposition models reveal that genetic factors account for 58% of the variance in the stability in delinquent peers. The shared environment explains 34% of the variance in stability, and the remaining 8% is attributable to the nonshared environment. The importance of a biosocial approach in criminological research is discussed.

Parental Status and Punitiveness: Moderating Effects of Gender and Concern About Crime

Welch, K. — Tue, 07 Apr 2009 15:53:07 PDT

Previously identified predictors of public punitiveness include attitudinal, experiential, background, and demographic characteristics. Given the influence of parenthood on certain attitudes and beliefs, it may also affect how strongly individuals endorse harsh punishment for criminals. Few studies have explored how parenthood influences general policy preferences or support for criminal justice measures specifically, and findings have been mixed. The author estimated linear ordinary least squares regression equations, using national random telephone survey data, to test for direct effects of parenthood on measures of punitive attitudes toward juveniles and adults and overall. Two-and three-way interactions with gender and concern about crime were also estimated, and although the additive effects of parenthood on punitiveness were significant only for attitudes toward adult offenders, gender and concern about crime moderated its effects on punitive policy support, with fathers and parents for whom crime was less salient being more punitive. These findings suggest that research testing only linear influences may overlook more complex relationships.

What a Girl Wants, What a Girl Needs: Findings From a Gender-Specific Focus Group Study

Garcia, C. A., Lane, J. — Fri, 03 Apr 2009 11:24:11 PDT

Most arrests among girls are attributable to status offenses and property crimes; however, the number of girls arrested for assault and other violent crimes is increasing. Although arrest patterns among girls may be changing, the way the system responds has not. Correctional programs have almost always been designed with the male offender in mind—ignoring the needs of at-risk and delinquent girls. The paucity of gender-specific programming might have seemed acceptable in the past; however, academics and practitioners now agree that girls’ needs can no longer be ignored. The purpose of this article is to (a) report on findings from a focus group study that examines what at-risk and delinquent girls claim they want and need from the system, (b) determine whether what the girls say they want is similar to what the literature says they need, and (c) provide practical recommendations that practitioners can use to improve the status of girls in their care.

Manipulating Public Opinion About Trying Juveniles as Adults: An Experimental Study

Steinberg, L., Piquero, A. R. — Thu, 02 Apr 2009 13:34:44 PDT

Public attitudes about juvenile crime play a significant role in fashioning juvenile justice policy; variations in the wording of public opinion surveys can produce very different responses and can result in inaccurate and unreliable assessments of public sentiment. Surveys that ask about policy alternatives in vague terms are especially problematic. The authors conducted an experiment in which a large sample of respondents were presented with a crime scenario in which the offender’s age and prior record, the type of crime, and the inclusiveness of the policy in question were varied. Respondents were asked about the extent to which they support trying juveniles in adult court. Responses varied significantly as a function of the offender’s age, criminal record, and offense but not as a function of inclusiveness. For legislators using public opinion polls to guide their decisions, blanket statements describing the results of vaguely worded surveys items can be misleading and can lead to poorly informed policy making.

Cheating the Hangman: The Effect of the Roper v. Simmons Decision on Homicides Committed by Juveniles

Flexon, J. L., Stolzenberg, L., D'Alessio, S. J. — Tue, 31 Mar 2009 11:14:10 PDT

On March 1, 2005, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the execution of offenders under the age of 18 at the time of their criminal offense was unconstitutional. Although many welcomed this decision, some individuals still remain concerned that the elimination of the specter of capital punishment will inevitably increase homicidal behavior among juveniles by reducing the prospect of deterrence. Using monthly data from the Supplemental Homicide Reports and a multiple time-series research design, the authors investigate the impact of the Roper v. Simmons decision on homicides perpetrated by juveniles in the 20 states affected by the law. Maximum likelihood results reveal that the repeal of the juvenile death penalty has had no effect on juvenile homicidal behavior.

Judges' Reactions to Ohio's "Jessica's Law"

Griffin, T., Wooldredge, J. — Tue, 31 Mar 2009 11:14:09 PDT

In 2007, Ohio lawmakers passed that state’s version of "Jessica’s law" (Senate Bill [SB] 260), which mandates severe prison terms for sex offenses against very young children. Using data from a survey of Ohio judges administered right after SB 260’s passage, the authors found that a majority opposed the new law, as predicted. However, no relationship between political party preference and overall assessment of SB 260 was found, challenging the assumption that judicial "leniency" would explain opposition to the harsh penalties. Instead, quantitative and qualitative data showed that judges who disliked SB 260 feared the loss of judicial discretion and excessively harsh sentences for relatively less serious sex offenders. Opposing judges also perceived SB 260 as derived from cynical politics and popular ignorance. The potential value of consulting practitioner perspectives on sentencing enhancements and considerations for addressing moral panic–driven crime legislation in the long run are explored.

The Impact of Security Placement on Female Offenders' Institutional Behavior

Gobeil, R., Blanchette, K., Barrett, M. R. — Thu, 26 Feb 2009 16:08:37 PST

It has been argued that institutional misconduct is promulgated by the correctional environments associated with different security levels. In this article, the authors summarize the results of a study examining whether such an association was present among Canadian federally sentenced female offenders. A total of 964 security reviews of federally sentenced women were analyzed to determine the independent effects of assessed risk (on the basis of individual-level factors) and security placement on institutional behavior. The analyses revealed that institutional behavior was related to assessed risk, after controlling for the effect of security placement. No relationship between security placement and misbehavior remained after controlling for assessed risk. Together, these findings suggest that although individual-level variables influence behavior, security placement does not.

The Institutionalization of Racial Profiling Policy: An Examination of Antiprofiling Policy Adoption Among Large Law Enforcement Agencies

Miller, K. — Thu, 26 Feb 2009 16:08:38 PST

The issue of racial profiling has come to represent one of the key contemporary challenges facing law enforcement agencies in the United States. One way that agencies have responded to this issue is to adopt anti-profiling policies to address concerns about racial disparities in traffic stops and their outcomes. Policy adoption is assumed to encourage more racially equitable policing as well as enhance community relations. While both of these outcomes appear beneficial to law enforcement agencies, there is also good reason to expect that agencies may differ in the extent to which they are likely to implement such policy. This study explores what factors explain the adoption of protocols addressing the racial profiling phenomenon. Using data on large law enforcement agencies from the 2003 LEMAS survey, the findings reveal that both agency organizational characteristics and environmental features of the jurisdiction are associated with the agency’s profiling policy regime.

An Examination of the Interactions of Race and Gender on Sentencing Decisions Using a Trichotomous Dependent Variable

Freiburger, T. L., Hilinski, C. M. — Tue, 24 Feb 2009 15:30:23 PST

This study examined how race, gender, and age interact to affect defendants’ sentences using a trichotomized dependent variable. The findings indicate that the racial and gender disparity found in sentencing decisions was largely due to Black men’s increased likelihood of receiving jail as opposed to probation. The results also show that being young resulted in increased odds of receiving probation over jail for White men and for women but resulted in decreased odds for Black men. Separate analysis of incarceration terms to jail and prison further reveal that legal factors had a greater impact on prison than on jail sentence length. Overall, the results strongly support the argument that sentencing research needs to consider sentences to jail and prison separately.

The Impact of Mass Incarceration on Poverty

DeFina, R., Hannon, L. — Thu, 12 Feb 2009 10:10:11 PST

During the past 30 years, U.S. poverty has remained high despite overall economic growth. At the same time, incarceration rates have risen by more than 300%, a phenomenon that many analysts have referred to as mass incarceration. This article explores whether the mass incarceration of the past few decades impeded progress toward poverty reduction. Relying on a state-level panel spanning 1980 to 2004, the study measures the impact of incarceration on three poverty indexes. Estimates are generated using instrumental variable techniques to account for possible simultaneity between incarceration and poverty. The evidence indicates that growing incarceration has significantly increased poverty, regardless of which index is used to gauge poverty. Indeed, the official poverty rate would have fallen considerably during the period had it not been for mass incarceration.

Disregarding Graduated Treatment: Why Transfer Aggravates Recidivism

Johnson, K., Lanza-Kaduce, L., Woolard, J. — Tue, 10 Feb 2009 11:15:28 PST

These data merge correctional histories with official state and courthouse information for a sample of teenage offenders, some of whom had been transferred to the adult system. Previous research indicated that transfer aggravates recidivism after the age of 18. The correctional data allow the examination of the relationship between sanctions and recidivism for repeat offenders. The authors explored whether repeat offenders who received graduated sanctions had lower recidivism after age 18 than those who leapfrogged over graduated sanctions. Transfer often involves leapfrogging over treatment options; sometimes it leads to secure placement in adult facilities but sometimes it results in adult probation. Within the juvenile justice system, some repeat offenders jump over intermediate interventions to deep-end placements. Graduated sanctions lead to less recidivism. When measures of graduated sanctions are included in multivariate analyses, transfer no longer predicts recidivism.

Housing for the "Worst of the Worst" Inmates: Public Support for Supermax Prisons

Mears, D. P., Mancini, C., Beaver, K. M., Gertz, M. — Fri, 06 Feb 2009 14:18:24 PST

Despite concerns whether supermaximum security prisons violate human rights or prove effective, these facilities have proliferated in America over the past 25 years. This punishment—aimed at the "worst of the worst" inmates and involving 23-hr-per-day single-cell confinement with few privileges or services—has emerged despite little evidence that the public supports it. Based on public opinion survey data, this study identified the extent to which support exists for supermax prisons and so tested three interrelated hypotheses about variation in public views. The focal contention is that support can be linked to groups that are most concerned with symbolic threats, to those most embracing of a belief in individual agency, and to those who have had negative contacts with offenders. The article concludes with a discussion on implications for theory, research, and policy.

The Timing and Accumulation of Judicial Sanctions Among Drug Court Clients

McRee, N., Drapela, L. A. — Wed, 04 Feb 2009 09:30:41 PST

Judicial sanctions are used by drug courts to encourage clients to comply with program requirements. However, few studies have explored the application of sanctions in drug courts or the relationship between sanctions and drug court graduation. This article reports the results of a study of sanctions as applied in a drug court in southwest Washington State. Results reveal no significant difference in the number of sanctions accrued between drug court graduates and noncompleters. However, noncompleters are significantly more likely than graduates to accrue sanctions within the first 30 days of entering drug court. Furthermore, accrual of an early sanction is highly predictive of eventual program failure. Severity of the first sanction (regardless of when it was received) is also related to a lower probability of graduation. The authors conclude that information about how offenders accrue sanctions may be useful to drug court personnel as they monitor clients and determine appropriate intervention strategies.

Therapeutic Community in a California Prison: Treatment Outcomes After 5 Years

Zhang, S. X., Roberts, R. E. L., McCollister, K. E. — Thu, 29 Jan 2009 10:40:54 PST

Therapeutic communities have become increasingly popular among correctional agencies with drug-involved offenders. This quasi-experimental study followed a group of inmates who participated in a prison-based therapeutic community in a California state prison, with a comparison group of matched offenders, for more than 5 years after their initial prison release. Contrary to successes reported elsewhere, this study found no difference in new arrests and returns to prison between therapeutic community participants and the comparison participants after 5 years. Overall, more than 60% of both groups were returned to prison within 2 years following their initial release. After 5 years, the return-to-prison rate reached about 73% for both groups. The average time spent in prison following initial release was about the same for both groups. Rearrest offenses were also similar in both groups. Policy implications are discussed.

Multiple Homicide as a Function of Prisonization and Concurrent Instrumental Violence: Testing an Interactive Model--A Research Note

DeLisi, M., Walters, G. D. — Tue, 27 Jan 2009 10:08:29 PST

Prisonization (as measured by number of prior incarcerations) and concurrent instrumental offending (as measured by contemporaneous kidnapping, rape, robbery, and burglary offenses) were found to interact in 160 multiple-homicide offenders and 494 single-homicide offenders. Controlling for age, gender, race, criminal history, prior incarcerations, and instrumental contemporaneous offending, the interaction between prior incarceration and instrumental contemporaneous offending was a significant predictor of multiple homicide. These results constitute exploratory evidence suggesting that multiple homicide has a greater likelihood of occurring when prisonization and concurrent instrumental criminal offending are present. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.

Urban Inequality and Racial Differences in Risk for Violent Victimization

Like, T. Z. — Thu, 15 Jan 2009 12:33:04 PST

Past research has shown that racial inequality in urban areas—Black and White residential segregation and economic inequality—is associated with increased levels of homicide offending and that victimization among Blacks yet serves as a protection mechanism against such violence among Whites. However, few studies have considered alternative measures of violence, namely nonfatal violent victimization in the study of racial inequality in urban areas. This oversight is problematic, given that although some scholars suggest that homicide is a reliable indicator of all forms of violence in general, victimization reports often point to qualitative differences in lethal and nonlethal forms of violence. Consequently, this research examines the link between city-level White and Black residential segregation and economic inequality and individual risks for nonfatal violent victimization net of individual-level factors that have also been associated with such risks. The data are disaggregated by race, because White and Black residential segregation and economic inequality are believed to have disparate effects on non-Hispanic Whites’ and nonHispanic Blacks’ risks. Overall, the findings indicate that both forms of racial inequality function to protect Whites from nonfatal violent victimization but concomitantly increase such risks among Blacks. The implications of these findings and areas of future research are also discussed.

Exploring Inmate Reentry in a Local Jail Setting: Implications for Outreach, Service Use, and Recidivism

White, M. D., Saunders, J., Fisher, C., Mellow, J. — Wed, 24 Dec 2008 13:26:30 PST

Although prisoner reentry has taken center stage in correctional research and policy discussions, there has been little emphasis on reentry among jail populations. This paper examines a jail-based reentry program in New York City that begins while individuals are incarcerated and includes 90 days of post-release services. This article explores these assumptions through an evaluation of a jail-based reentry program in New York City that begins while individuals are incarcerated and includes 90 days of postrelease services. To determine program impact, the authors compare samples of participants with nonparticipants and program completers with noncompleters. The groups are matched using developmental trajectories derived from group-based trajectory modeling, in addition to propensity score matching. Findings show that participants perform no better than nonparticipants over a 1-year follow-up, but those who stay engaged for at least 90 days of postrelease services experience significantly fewer (and slower) returns to jail. The findings regarding program completion are tempered by several methodological concerns, however. The article concludes with a discussion of how the study may offer insights for program implementation and operation with this target population.

The Gendered Nature of Drug Acquisition Behavior Within Marijuana and Crack Drug Markets

Griffin, M. L., Rodriguez, N. — Tue, 23 Dec 2008 08:30:07 PST

Previous studies examining how gender structures women’s opportunities to engage in the street-level drug economy have provided insight into the changing nature of illicit drug markets and women’s roles within this illegitimate economy. Using national data from the Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring program, this study adds to the existing body of research by examining drug market acquisition behaviors and how such drug activity differs by gender. The findings indicate that male and female arrestees use different strategies when obtaining drugs. Specifically, women appear to rely on a more limited array of social contacts than men when acquiring drugs. The results also reveal that the effect of gender on efforts to obtain drugs is not constant across drug types. This study suggests that the strategies used by women when obtaining drugs may very well reflect the gendered culture of street-level drug markets and the influence of personal relationships on women’s involvement in criminal activity.

Sexual Arousal and Self-Control: Results From a Preliminary Experimental Test of the Stability of Self-Control

Bouffard, J., Kunzi, T. — Fri, 19 Dec 2008 11:01:38 PST

A central proposition of Gottfredson and Hirschi’s (1990) General Theory of Crime is the relative stability of low self-control, however research on "self-control strength" suggests that it may vary across contexts. The current study examines these differing conceptions by randomly assigning participants to one of two sexual arousal conditions or to a no-arousal condition. Group differences in the six components of self-control, as captured on the Grasmick et al. (1993) scale were then examined. Unexpectedly, individuals in the most intense arousal condition actually reported higher self-control than those in the other conditions (both in absolute value and in changes in relative rank within the sample). Such findings provide additional empirical support for the recent conceptualization of self-control strength as a personal characteristic that can be both exercised and potentially depleted when overused.

Deterrence and Macro-Level Perceptions of Punishment Risks: Is There a "Collective Wisdom"?

Kleck, G., Barnes, J. C. — Thu, 11 Dec 2008 11:40:50 PST

Prior research indicates that individual perceptions of the risk of punishment for criminal behavior are unrelated to actual risks of punishment in the areas in which individuals reside. It could be argued, however, that the relevant policy question is whether variation in actual punishment levels affects average perceptions of risk among aggregates. Scholars have argued that there is "collective wisdom" in the perceptions of collectivities of humans, even if the views of individuals are inaccurate. This thesis is tested using survey data on individual perceptions of the risks of legal punishment for crimes, aggregated up to the level of county populations. The authors find that the aggregate perceptions of county populations are generally not related to actual county levels of the certainty, severity, and swiftness of punishment. Thus, neither the perceptions of individuals nor the average perceptions of populations have any significant association with actual risks of punishment.

Practitioner Views of Priorities, Policies, and Practices in Juvenile Justice

Mears, D. P., Shollenberger, T. L., Willison, J. B., Owens, C. E., Butts, J. A. — Tue, 11 Nov 2008 09:58:46 PST

Dramatic changes in juvenile justice have occurred in recent decades. One result has been the emergence of new policies and practices, many of which remain largely unexamined. One avenue for gaining insight into whether such policies and practices are needed or effective, as well as into how the juvenile justice system might be improved, is to tap into the perceptions of people who work within this system. Drawing on a national survey of juvenile court practitioners, the authors investigate key questions about the effectiveness of juvenile justice and discuss the implications of the study’s findings for research, policy, and practice.

Criminality Among Rural Stimulant Users in the United States

Wed, 22 Oct 2008 09:52:01 PDT

Despite the increase in media attention on "meth cooking" in rural areas of the United States, little is known about rural stimulant use—particularly, the criminality associated with stimulant use. Data were collected from community stimulant users in rural Ohio, Arkansas, and Kentucky (N = 709). Findings from three logistic regression models indicate that younger stimulant users (M = 32.55, SD = 10.35), those with more convictions, and those who used crack frequently were significantly more likely to have been arrested for committing a substance-related crime, a property crime, or another crime in the 6 months before entering the study. Implications include the need for longitudinal studies to further understand rural stimulant use, as well as increased community and corrections-based drug abuse prevention and treatment interventions for stimulant users who live in rural areas.

Gangkill: An Exploratory Empirical Assessment of Gang Membership, Homicide Offending, and Prison Misconduct

Drury, A. J., DeLisi, M. — Thu, 09 Oct 2008 10:05:55 PDT

Extant research indicates that inmates with street gang history are prone for prison misconduct but that inmates convicted of homicide offenses are less likely to be noncompliant. No research has explored the interaction between street gang history and homicide offending. Based on official infraction data from 1,005 inmates selected from the Southwestern United States, the current study found that inmates with street gang history and convictions for homicide offenses were significantly involved in six types of institutional misconduct, net the effects of homicide offending, offense severity, street and prison gang risk, violence history, and demographics. Implications for theory and research are explored.

Completely Out of Control or the Desire to Be in Complete Control? How Low Self-Control and the Desire for Control Relate to Corporate Offending

Piquero, N. L., Schoepfer, A., Langton, L. — Wed, 08 Oct 2008 09:56:30 PDT

Whereas Gottfredson and Hirschi’s general theory of crime asserts that individuals with low self-control are more likely to engage in all types of crime as well as analogous acts, some research has recently questioned the generality of the theory, particularly with regard to its explanation of corporate crime. In addition, recent research has shown that another individual characteristic— the desire for control, or the general wish to be in control over everyday life events—may help shed greater light on understanding corporate criminality. Based on data from a factorial survey administered to working adults enrolled in business classes, the relationship between these two concepts was examined, with attention paid to the ability of each to explain corporate crime. Results indicate that neither an attitudinal nor a behavioral measure of low self-control relates to corporate offending but that the desire for control does. Theoretical implications and future directions are discussed.

Sexual Harassment Victimization During Emerging Adulthood: A Test of Routine Activities Theory and a General Theory of Crime

Clodfelter, T. A., Turner, M. G., Hartman, J. L., Kuhns, J. B. — Tue, 07 Oct 2008 13:18:58 PDT

Sexual harassment of college students may lead to more serious forms of sexual assault. Few studies have investigated sexual harassment predictors framed within competing theoretical perspectives. In this study, the literature is extended by examining (a) three types of sexual harassment on a college campus, (b) the nature of reporting, and (c) whether routine activities and self-control theories effectively explain sexual harassment. Findings indicate that one fourth of the participants in the sample were sexually harassed, assaulted students are extremely unlikely to officially report incidents, and measures of routine activities theory are important predictors of sexual harassment. Prevention and education policies should focus on increased reporting to university authorities and helping students understand the situational contexts in which these behaviors are likely to occur.

Is a Risky Lifestyle Always "Risky"? The Interaction Between Individual Propensity and Lifestyle Risk in Adolescent Offending: A Test in Two Urban Samples

Svensson, R., Pauwels, L. — Wed, 24 Sep 2008 11:47:00 PDT

This study examines the effects on adolescent offending of lifestyle risk and the individual propensity to offend. It is assumed that lifestyle risk will have a more important effect on offending for those individuals with high levels of individual propensity, whereas for individuals with low levels of individual propensity it is assumed that a risky lifestyle will not, or will only marginally, influence their involvement in offending. The data are drawn from two different samples of young adolescents in Antwerp, Belgium (N = 2,486), and Halmstad, Sweden (N = 1,003). The data provide strong support for the hypothesis that the effect of lifestyle risk is dependent on the strength or weakness of individual propensity, indicating that lifestyle risk has a stronger effect on delinquency for individuals with a high propensity to offend. The similarity of the results across two independent samples suggests the findings are stable.

Neighborhood Disadvantage and Reliance on the Police

Schaible, L. M., Hughes, L. A. — Mon, 08 Sep 2008 12:45:34 PDT

Contemporary theories suggest that, due to limited access and generalized distrust, residents of disadvantaged neighborhoods are relatively unlikely to report matters to police. Although existing studies reveal few ecological differences in crime reporting, findings may be limited to victim/offense subsets represented in aggregated victimization data. Using calls-for-service (CFS) data from a Pacific Northwest city, this study assesses the degree to which neighborhood block groups (N = 164) vary in incidents reported to police overall and subsequent to the elimination of a major nonemergency-reporting mechanism. Two hypotheses are assessed: First, CFS rates will vary inversely with neighborhood disadvantage, net of the effect of objective levels of crime and other control variables; second, CFS originating in affluent neighborhoods will exhibit greater year-to-year decreases relative to disadvantaged neighborhoods following reduction of local reporting services in 2004. Findings from spatial analyses indicate that residents of disadvantaged neighborhoods tend to rely on police for assistance as much as, if not more than, people elsewhere.

Racial Threat, Suspicion, and Police Behavior: The Impact of Race and Place in Traffic Enforcement

Novak, K. J., Chamlin, M. B. — Mon, 25 Aug 2008 12:16:25 PDT

Racial bias in traffic enforcement has become a popular line of inquiry, but examinations into explanations for the disparity have been scant. The current research integrates theoretical insights from the racial threat hypothesis with inferences drawn from the empirical analyses of the factors that stimulate officer suspicion. The most intriguing finding from this beat-level examination of the structural predictors of several traffic stop outcome measures concerns the conditional effect of the racial composition of the beat on search rates. The analyses reveal that the search rate increases in areas where the proportion of Black residents is higher; however, this finding is observed only for White motorists. This finding is interpreted as indicating that structural characteristics of an area can provide cues to officers regarding who belongs in that environment. As a result, social control increases among groups whose racial characteristics are inconsistent with the neighborhood racial composition.

The Jailing of America's Homeless: Evaluating the Rabble Management Thesis

Fitzpatrick, K. M., Myrstol, B. — Mon, 25 Aug 2008 12:16:24 PDT

The authors of this article test hypotheses derived from Irwin’s rabble management thesis. The analysis uses data from 47,592 interviews conducted with jailed adults in 30 U.S. cities as part of the Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring program. Clearly, homeless persons are overrepresented among those arrested and booked into local jails. Bivariate analysis support a fundamental assertion of the rabble management thesis: Homeless are jailed not because of their dangerousness but rather their offensiveness. Homeless arrestees are distinct from their domiciled counterparts in terms of sociodemographic characteristics, previous experiences with alcohol and drug treatment, mental health, criminal justice systems, and alcohol and drug use histories. In addition, homeless are less likely than domiciled arrestees to be jailed for felonies and violent crimes but more likely to be charged with maintenance and property crimes. Logistic regression models confirm these differences, even after other factors are controlled. A discussion of the policy implications of these findings follows.

The Failure of Race Neutral Policies: How Mandatory Terms and Sentencing Enhancements Contribute to Mass Racialized Incarceration

Schlesinger, T. — Tue, 19 Aug 2008 08:23:48 PDT

This study examines the effects of mandatory terms and sentencing enhancements on Black and White men’s state-level prison admission rates. Four major findings emerge from the analysis. First, both mandatory terms and sentencing enhancements increase prison admission rates for Black and White men. Second, these policies disproportionately increase Black men’s admissions. Third, the effects of these policies—on both scale and disparity— are strongest and most consistent on admissions for violent offenses. Finally, although sentencing enhancements increase admission rates more consistently than mandatory terms, mandatory terms have larger effects on admission rates for the categories—for example, violent admissions for Black men—where they do increase admission rates. The findings are consistent with theories of modern racism, which argue that, in the post-civil rights era, racial disparities are primarily produced and maintained by colorblind policies and practices.

Parolees' Physical Closeness to Social Services: A Study of California Parolees

Hipp, J. R., Jannetta, J., Shah, R., Turner, S. — Thu, 14 Aug 2008 10:11:17 PDT

This study examines the proximity of service providers to recently released parolees in California over a 2-year period (2005-2006). The addresses of parolee residences and service providers are geocoded, and the number of various types of service providers within 2 miles (3.2 km) of a parolee are measured. "Potential demand" is measured as the number of parolees within 2 miles of a provider. Although racial and ethnic minority parolees have more service providers nearby, these providers appear to be particularly impacted based on potential demand. It is also found that the parolees arguably most in need of social services—those who have spent more time in correctional institutions, have been convicted of more serious or violent crimes in their careers, or are sex offenders—live near fewer social services, or the providers near them appear impacted.

The Effectiveness of Policies and Programs That Attempt to Reduce Firearm Violence: A Meta-Analysis

Makarios, M. D., Pratt, T. C. — Mon, 04 Aug 2008 10:25:32 PDT

In response to rising rates of firearms violence that peaked in the mid-1990s, a wide range of policy interventions have been developed in an attempt to reduce violent crimes committed with firearms. Although some of these approaches appear to be effective at reducing gun violence, methodological variations make comparing effects across program evaluations difficult. Accordingly, in this article, the authors use meta-analytic techniques to determine what works in reducing gun violence. The results indicate that comprehensive community-based law enforcement initiatives have performed the best at reducing gun violence.

Social Support and Feelings of Hostility Among Released Inmates

Hochstetler, A., DeLisi, M., Pratt, T. C. — Mon, 04 Aug 2008 10:25:32 PDT

There is broad consensus that the strains of imprisonment and unsupported release affect offenders’ mental health and operate to the detriment of their chances of successful reintegration. Drawing on data from 208 male inmates, the authors examine the mediating and moderating influences of social support on the links between inmates’ perceptions of prison conditions and other background variables on parolees’ feelings of hostility—a factor theoretically linked to reoffending—upon release. The results demonstrate that social support partially or completely mediates background characteristics and conditions the influence of prison perceptions on released inmates’ levels of hostility.

Patterns of Victimization and Feelings of Safety Inside Prison: The Experience of Male and Female Inmates

Wolff, N., Shi, J. — Sun, 20 Jul 2008 22:52:52 PDT

Little is known about the patterns of sexual victimization inside prisons and their relationship to inmates’ feelings of safety. This study examined patterns of sexual victimization with and without co-occurring physical victimization and feelings of safety as reported by 6,964 male and 564 female inmates. Respondents completed a computerized survey with questions about type of victimization (sexual/physical) and source of victimization (inmate/staff). Compared to sexual assault, inappropriate sexual touching was more common, especially among female inmates (22% versus 4%), whereas sexual assault was relatively less common for male and female inmates (<2%). Sexual victimization often involved one to three types of sexually inappropriately behavior. Victimization perpetrated by staff was more frequently reported by male inmates. Most inmates, independent of gender and sexual victimization, reported feeling safe inside prison. Inmates who felt the most unsafe reported sexual victimization by staff or concurrent sexual and physical victimization (n = 150).

Repeat Offending and Repeat Victimization: Assessing Similarities and Differences in Psychosocial Risk Factors

Fagan, A. A., Mazerolle, P. — Wed, 16 Jul 2008 09:58:15 PDT

The overlap between victims and offenders is increasingly being recognized, with mounting evidence that victims and offenders have similar demographic characteristics, that victimization increases the likelihood of offending, and that offenders are at high risk for becoming victims of crime. Despite this evidence, there is limited research regarding the extent to which repeat victims are likely to be repeat offenders, and few studies have assessed whether predictors of repeat victimization and repeat offending are similar. Using data from a longitudinal study of young people in Brisbane, Australia, this study demonstrates that despite some overlap, there are some important differences in predictors of repeat offenders and repeat victims.

Juvenile Transfer and Deterrence: Reexamining the Effectiveness of a "Get-Tough" Policy

Jordan, K. L., Myers, D. L. — Fri, 11 Jul 2008 10:30:36 PDT

Although research has examined the effectiveness of juvenile transfer on recidivism, there has been a lack of research done in assessing how well juvenile waiver to adult court meets the criteria necessary for deterrence to occur (i.e., certainty, severity, and swiftness of punishment). The purpose of this study is to assess how well juvenile transfer meets these criteria, using data on 345 youths legislatively waived to adult court in Pennsylvania. The findings indicate that there is greater punishment severity in adult court, but there is no difference in punishment certainty between the two court systems. In addition, court processing occurred more quickly in juvenile court. In other words, only one element of deterrence theory is achieved with juvenile transfer. Implications for subsequent research and policy are discussed.

Neighborhood Variation in Gang Member Concentrations

Katz, C. M., Schnebly, S. M. — Thu, 10 Jul 2008 10:16:30 PDT

This study examines the relationship between neighborhood structure, violent crime, and concentrations of gang members at the neighborhood level. We rely on official police gang list data, police crime data, and two waves of decennial census data characterizing the socioeconomic and demographic conditions of 93 neighborhoods in Mesa, Arizona. Although we find positive linear associations between gang member concentrations and indicators of economic deprivation and social and familial disadvantage, the results of nonlinear models reveal that at extreme levels of disadvantage, the magnitudes of these positive associations are substantially reduced. In addition, although we find that neighborhood crime has no influence on concentrations of gang members net of other neighborhood characteristics, our results reveal that neighborhood instability is a key component for understanding variability in the gang phenomenon. More specifically, our results suggest that gang membership is less likely in social contexts characterized by either a residentially unstable population or rapidly changing structural conditions.

Prosecuting Child Sexual Abuse: The Importance of Evidence Type

Walsh, W. A., Jones, L. M., Cross, T. P., Lippert, T. — Tue, 08 Jul 2008 10:13:56 PDT

Corroborating evidence has been associated with a decrease in children’s distress during the court process, yet few studies have empirically examined the impact of evidence type on prosecution rates. This study examined the types of evidence and whether charges were filed in a sample of child sexual abuse cases (n = 329). Cases with a child disclosure, a corroborating witness, an offender confession, or an additional report against the offender were more likely to have charges filed, controlling for case characteristics. When cases were lacking strong evidence (confession, physical evidence, eyewitness), cases with a corroborating witness were nearly twice as likely to be charged. Charged cases tended to have at least two types of evidence, regardless of whether there was a child disclosure or not.

The Dangerous Drug Offender in Federal Court: Intersections of Race, Ethnicity, and Culpability

Spohn, C., Sample, L. L. — Tue, 08 Jul 2008 10:13:56 PDT

This study examines the complex relationships among stereotypes about crime, the offender’s race/ethnicity, and sentencing decisions. Using data on White, Black, and Hispanic male drug offenders sentenced in three U.S. district courts and a definition of the dangerous drug offender appropriate to the federal sentence system, the authors explore the degree to which stereotypes about dangerous drug offenders influence sentence length. The results reveal that fitting the stereotype of a dangerous federal drug offender (i.e., a male drug trafficker with a prior trafficking conviction who used a weapon to commit the current offense) affected the length of the prison sentence for Black offenders but not for White or Hispanic offenders. Further analysis revealed that this effect was confined to Black offenders convicted of drug offenses involving crack cocaine. The results provide further evidence that the focal concerns guiding judicial decision making may vary depending on the offender’s race or ethnicity.

A Randomized Trial of Probation Case Management for Drug-Involved Women Offenders

Guydish, J., Chan, M., Bostrom, A., Jessup, M. A., Davis, T. B., Marsh, C. — Thu, 03 Jul 2008 10:32:26 PDT

This article reports findings from a clinical trial of a probation case management (PCM) intervention for drug-involved women offenders. Participants were randomly assigned to PCM (n = 92) or standard probation (n = 91) and followed for 12 months using measures of substance abuse, psychiatric symptoms, social support, and service utilization. Arrest data were collected from administrative data sets. The sample included mostly African American and White women (age M = 34.7, education M = 11.6 years). Cocaine and heroin were the most frequently reported drugs of abuse, 86% reported history of incarceration, and 74% had children. Women assigned to both PCM and standard probation showed clinical improvement change over time on 7 of 10 measured outcomes. However, PCM group changes were no different than those observed for the standard probation group. Higher levels of case management, drug abuse treatment, and probationary supervision may be required to achieve improved outcomes in this population.

Explaining Victim Self-Protective Behavior Effects on Crime Incident Outcomes: A Test of Opportunity Theory

Guerette, R. T., Santana, S. A. — Fri, 27 Jun 2008 11:01:44 PDT

Prior research on victim self-protective behavior (VSPB) has largely been void of a theoretical basis. Accordingly, it remains unclear why it would be expected that victim actions might mitigate crime incident outcomes or under which circumstances such actions might be most successful. Using data from the National Crime Victimization Survey for periods 1992 to 2004, this study uses a nested logistic regression analysis to test the predictive utility of opportunity theory in explaining outcomes of VSPB during incidents of robbery and rape. The results suggest that opportunity theory provides a useful framework for understanding the effect of victim resistance on crime outcomes. Greater levels of victim resistance increase the effort needed by offenders, resulting in some cases in a 93% and 92% decrease in the odds of a robbery and rape being completed, respectively, compared to when no resistance is used. Implications for crime prevention practice are discussed.

Courtroom Workgroups and Sentencing: The Effects of Similarity, Proximity, and Stability

Haynes, S. H., Ruback, B., Cusick, G. R. — Thu, 26 Jun 2008 09:47:09 PDT

Sentencing decisions are the product of a group of courtroom actors, primarily judges and district attorneys. Although the structure of the courtroom workgroup and the interdependencies among members are assumed to be important determinants of sentencing decisions, the degree of this importance and the specific mechanisms through which workgroups affect these decisions have not been investigated. This study used data from the Pennsylvania Commission on Sentencing (PCS) for the years 1990 to 2000 to examine how three social psychological aspects of courtroom workgroups (similarity, proximity, and stability) affect sentencing decisions. Results indicated (a) that workgroups generally had very high levels of similarity in terms of race, gender, and political party but lower levels of similarity in terms of age, college education, and law school education and (b) that proximity and stability were generally high. Controlling for individual, case, and distal contextual factors, workgroup factors affected the decision to incarcerate, the decision to impose fines, and the decision to impose restitution. In particular, proximity increased the use of economic sanctions relative to incarceration and stability was associated with a decrease in the imposition of economic sanctions. Similarity had inconsistent effects.

Contagious Fire? An Empirical Assessment of the Problem of Multi-shooter, Multi-shot Deadly Force Incidents in Police Work

White, M. D., Klinger, D. — Tue, 24 Jun 2008 14:12:41 PDT

Recent police shootings in which multiple officers fired numerous rounds at suspects have led some observers to assert that such situations involve "contagious fire," where an initial officer’s shots launch a cascade of gunfire from other officers present. Although there is anecdotal recognition of the contagious fire phenomenon among police and the media, there is not a single empirical study documenting its existence in more than 50 years of deadly force research. This article uses Philadelphia Police Department shooting data to explore the potential for police shootings to become contagious. The article provides a testable definition of contagious shootings and identifies predictors of three outcomes: multiple officer shootings, the average number of shots fired per officer, and multi-officer, multi-shot incidents. Findings show that the requisite preconditions for a contagious shooting rarely occur, and when the preconditions were met, there is no evidence to support the existence of a contagion effect.

Political Culture Versus Socioeconomic Approaches to Predicting Police Strength in U.S. Police Agencies: Results of a Longitudinal Study, 1993 to 2003

Zhao, J., Ren, L., Lovrich, N. P. — Fri, 20 Jun 2008 09:36:45 PDT

A variety of theories have emerged that offer plausible explanations, one from the political institutional perspective and others from sociological perspective. There has been renewed interest in the effect of local political structure on police strength in the policing literature. The purpose of this study, therefore, is to assess the two main competing approaches that can explain variation in police employment across cities. The authors used a longitudinal data set collected from the same 280 cities in 1993, 1996, 2000, and 2003. A two-way fixed-effects panel model, used in the statistical analysis, indicates that the political culture approach, which focuses on local government structures, largely fails to contribute to the variation of police strength. The alternative socioeconomic approach better predicts police force levels across U.S. municipal police departments.

Public Opinion Regarding Juvenile Life Without Parole in Consecutive Statewide Surveys

Kubiak, S. P., Allen, T. — Tue, 10 Jun 2008 09:56:33 PDT

Abolition of the death penalty results in life without parole (LWOP) as the most severe sanction for convicted juveniles. Although internationally the use of LWOP for juveniles is rare, 2,225 youth have been sentenced to LWOP within the United States. To address the dearth of public opinion on the issue, the authors proposed questions to the survey administrators who then selected them for inclusion in two annual statewide surveys. They found that support for LWOP diminishes considerably when respondents are given a more complex array of sentencing options rather than a dichotomous choice to agree or disagree with the current policy. Those supporting LWOP are more likely to be younger, male, and White. These findings support the need for more nuanced and complex discussions and polling language, as well as policy alternatives.

Interdistrict Disparity in Sentencing in Three U.S. District Courts

Wu, J., Spohn, C. — Tue, 10 Jun 2008 09:56:33 PDT

Research examining disparities in sentencing outcomes under federal sentencing guidelines has focused almost exclusively on aggregate national data. Although these studies contribute considerably to the criminological literature on sentencing disparity, their findings may have masked contextual variation in relation to case processing across jurisdictions. With data from the U.S. District Courts for Minnesota, Nebraska, and Southern Iowa for 1998 through 2000, this article assesses whether interdistrict variations in sentence outcomes exist and whether the factors that affect these outcomes vary across jurisdictions. It also attempts to determine whether disparities in sentence outcomes can be attributed to downward departures. The findings raise questions about the validity of the assumption of uniformity in the federal sentencing process and the use of aggregate data to study federal sentence outcomes.

Elder Physical Abuse and Failure to Report Cases: Similarities and Differences in Case Type and the Justice System's Response

Payne, B. K. — Tue, 03 Jun 2008 11:58:39 PDT

Treated initially as a social problem, elder abuse has only recently been criminalized. The criminalization of elder abuse involves penalizing offenders for actively abusing offenders as well as for violating mandatory reporting laws. Mandatory reporting laws exist to encourage professionals to report suspected cases of elder abuse. In this study, attention is given to the way that failure to report elder abuse cases are adjudicated in comparison to elder physical abuse cases. Content analysis was performed on a sample of case descriptions of elder physical abuse cases and failure to report cases. Results suggest that mandatory reporting offenses are adjudicated slightly differently than physical abuse cases, and the dynamics surrounding the two offense types vary as well. Implications including the need for broader penalties and better training of human services professionals are suggested.

The Recidivism Patterns of Previously Deported Aliens Released From a Local Jail: Are They High-Risk Offenders?

Hickman, L. J., Suttorp, M. J. — Tue, 03 Jun 2008 11:58:39 PDT

Previously deported aliens are a group about which numerous claims are made but very few facts are known. Using data on male deportable aliens released from a local jail, the study sought to test the ubiquitous claim that they pose a high risk of recidivism. Using multiple measures of recidivism and propensity score weighting to account for preexisting group differences, the authors find consistent support for the assertion that previously deported aliens are a high recidivism risk. Relative to similarly situated deportable aliens with no record of deportation, previously deported aliens are more likely to be rearrested, to be rearrested more quickly, and to be rearrested more frequently in a 1-year follow-up period.

Causes of School Bullying: Empirical Test of a General Theory of Crime, Differential Association Theory, and General Strain Theory

Moon, B., Hwang, H.-W., McCluskey, J. D. — Tue, 20 May 2008 11:22:07 PDT

A growing number of studies indicate the ubiquity of school bullying: It is a global concern, regardless of cultural differences. Little previous research has examined whether leading criminological theories can explain bullying, despite the commonality between bullying and delinquency. The current investigation uses longitudinal data on 655 Korean youth, in three schools, to examine the applicability of leading criminological theories (general theory of crime, differential association theory, and general strain theory) in explaining school bullying. Overall, our findings indicate limited support for the generality of these three leading criminological theories in explaining the etiology of bullying. However, the findings show the significant effects of school-generated strains (teachers’ physical and emotional punishment and examination related strain) on bullying. Directions for future research and policy implications of these findings are discussed.

Evaluating Awareness of Registered Sex Offenders in the Neighborhood

Craun, S. W. — Fri, 16 May 2008 11:12:20 PDT

The goal of sex offender registration is to protect residents from recidivistic sexual offenders by providing public information about local offenders. This study determines what percentage of residents living near registered sex offenders are aware of the offenders and the predictors of awareness. The investigational group includes randomly selected residents, who completed surveys, living within one-tenth of a mile of registered sex offenders. A control group—those without sex offenders nearby—is included to see if residents believe offenders to be in every neighborhood. Significantly more investigational group respondents report that a sex offender lives in the neighborhood (31% vs. 2%). Hierarchical linear modeling confirms both individual and neighborhood predictors of awareness.

What Drives Juvenile Probation Officers? Relating Organizational Contexts, Status Characteristics, and Personal Convictions to Treatment and Punishment Orientations

Ward, G., Kupchik, A. — Wed, 14 May 2008 15:23:17 PDT

Data from surveys of juvenile court probation officers in four states are analyzed to understand professional orientations toward two seemingly contrasting goals of contemporary juvenile justice systems: punishment and treatment. These self-reported juvenile probation officer orientations are considered in relation to three clusters of variables representing somewhat distinct hypothetical bases of professional orientation: court context, decision-maker status characteristics, and resonance with legal, victim’s rights, and character issues. Although court context and status characteristics distinguish attitudes toward treatment and punishment, attitudinal resonance is an especially strong predictor of these orientations. Rather than mutually exclusive or static ideologies, treatment and punishment appear to be flexible, overlapping goals that appeal to officers according to their congruence with other personal convictions. Younger probation officers are also found to be more punitive, net of other influences, suggesting cohort replacement may accelerate the displacement of juvenile rehabilitative ideals. Implications for juvenile justice research and policy are considered.

Perceptions of Police Disrespect During Vehicle Stops: A Race-Based Analysis

Warren, P. Y. — Fri, 09 May 2008 14:05:48 PDT

Blacks and Whites perceive American social institutions in very different terms, and views of the police are no exception. Prior research has consistently demonstrated that race is one of the most salient predictors of attitudes toward the police, with African Americans expressing more dissatisfaction than Whites. The purpose of this research is to evaluate this issue by examining the relative influence of vicarious experience and more general trust in social institutions on Black-White differences in perceptions of disrespect by the police. Using survey data from the North Carolina Highway Traffic Study, the results suggest that vicarious experience and more long-standing trust in social institutions influence the likelihood that respondents will perceive police as disrespectful.

Opportunities, Rational Choice, and Self-Control: On the Interaction of Person and Situation in a General Theory of Crime

Seipel, C., Eifler, S. — Wed, 16 Apr 2008 17:30:53 PDT

In this article, deviant action is analyzed on the basis of ideas derived from Gottfredson and Hirschi’s self-control theory. Presumedly, self-control in interaction with opportunities can explain deviant action. This assumption is elaborated using the concept of high- and low-cost situations from rational choice theory. From this point of view, the hypotheses are that self-control predicts deviant action in low-cost situations, whereas utility predicts deviant action in high-cost situations. Two test strategies are employed in an empirical examination of these hypotheses. A standardized questionnaire was presented to a sample of 494 German adults aged 18 to 80. The results of both test strategies show that the assumptions of an interaction effect between self-control and opportunities are fundamentally supported.

Testing Incapacitation Theory: Youth Crime and Incarceration in California

Stahlkopf, C., Males, M., Macallair, D. — Mon, 14 Apr 2008 14:09:59 PDT

Under incapacitation theory, higher incarceration rates are expected to correlate with accelerated reductions in crime. California’s contemporary incarceration patterns offer an opportunity to analyze the validity of this theory, particularly as it applies to young people. This study focuses on California’s juvenile incarceration and crime trends during the past half century. The findings of this study fail to demonstrate reduced crime rates through higher levels of juvenile incarceration, calling deterrence and incapacitation theories into serious question as effective youth crime reduction strategies and demonstrating the urgent need for California policy makers and legislators to consider alternative theories in response to crime and sentencing.

Examining Charging Agreement Between Police and Prosecutors in Rape Cases

Holleran, D., Beichner, D., Spohn, C. — Thu, 10 Apr 2008 09:37:18 PDT

Although prior research has contributed to understanding of the factors that influence sexual assault case processing, it has primarily been viewed through the prosecutorial lens. The authors assert that a prosecutor’s charging decision involves not only a decision to file or reject the charge but, assuming that the case is not rejected, also a decision regarding the charge that should be filed. Accordingly, they examined the congruence between the charge filed by police at arrest with the charge filed by the prosecutor. The results indicate that charging agreement between police and prosecutors in rape cases is governed by a legal sufficiency framework in Philadelphia, where a specialized charging unit receives cases after decisions to charge have been made, and a trial sufficiency framework in Kansas City, Missouri, where a specialized unit makes the decision to charge and uses vertical prosecution from screening through disposition.

Defiance Theory and Life Course Explanations of Persistent Offending

Bouffard, L. A., Piquero, N. L. — Tue, 08 Apr 2008 11:18:41 PDT

Criminologists have long grappled with the varying effect of sanctions. In an effort to clarify these divergent effects, Sherman (1993) delineated a general theory of sanction effects, termed defiance theory. Defiance theory anticipates that there are four necessary conditions for defiance to occur: (a) the sanction must be perceived as unfair; (b) the offender must be poorly bonded; (c) the sanction must be perceived as stigmatizing; and (d) the offender denies the shame produced by the sanction. This study provides one of the first empirical assessments of defiance theory. In addition, defiance theory is examined within the life-course perspective, and analyses address trajectories of offending. Using data from the 1945 Philadelphia Birth Cohort, the results yield promising support for the theory.

Understanding Community Policing as an Innovation: Patterns of Adoption

Morabito, M. S. — Wed, 12 Mar 2008 11:43:52 PDT

In the 1980s and 1990s, community policing was viewed by many as a radical innovation in the field of policing, with the vast majority of police agencies reporting to have adopted the approach. Despite its overwhelming popularity, most police agencies did not adopt the central elements of community policing. This study examines patterns of community policing adoption of 474 police departments across the United States. Using an innovations framework, a model was developed that measures the extent to which community characteristics, organizational complexity, and organizational commitment can explain differences in the adoption of community policing. Findings suggest that the innovations approach can explain some variation in the adoption of community policing and should be considered in future police research.

Trust and Confidence in the Courts: Does the Quality of Treatment Young Offenders Receive Affect Their Views of the Courts?

Sprott, J. B., Greene, C. — Wed, 12 Mar 2008 11:43:51 PDT

It is assumed that legitimacy of the legal system is important, yet almost nothing is known about how young offenders view this institution. A sample of youths were interviewed at their first appearance in court and asked about their feelings regarding how they have been treated (procedural justice) by their lawyer, by the crown attorney, and by the judge, as well as their views on the overall legitimacy of the legal system. Youths were again interviewed at sentencing, using the same questionnaire, to explore changes in their views over time. Generally, it appears that how youths feel they have been treated— specifically, by their own lawyer and by the judge—affected broad views of legitimacy, even when controlling for their overall satisfaction of the outcome of their case.

Conviction Offense and Prison Violence: A Comparative Study of Murderers and Other Offenders

Sorensen, J., Cunningham, M. D. — Wed, 12 Mar 2008 11:43:51 PDT

The characteristics of, and 2003 disciplinary data on, 51,527 inmates in the Florida Department of Corrections, including 9,586 inmates who had been convicted of some degree of homicide, were examined for rates and correlates of prison misconduct and violence. Disciplinary misconduct and institutional acts of violence committed by an admissions cohort (N = 14,088) and a subset of Close custody inmates (N = 4,113) also were considered. Regardless of conviction offense, the prevalence and rate of violent prison misconduct fell markedly as the severity of assault increased. Comparative data showed that convicted murderers did not account for a disproportionate share of prison violence, however defined. Furthermore, negative binomial regression models revealed that convicted murderers were not significantly more likely to engage in disciplinary misconduct or commit acts of institutional violence than were inmates serving time for other offenses.

The Impact of Information on Death Penalty Support, Revisited

Lambert, E. G., Camp, S. D., Clarke, A., Jiang, S. — Fri, 29 Feb 2008 13:54:14 PST

In 1972, former Supreme Court Justice Marshall postulated that the public was uninformed about the death penalty and information would change their support for it. There is some indication that information about the death penalty may change people’s level of support. This study re-examines data used by Lambert and Clarke (2001). Using multivariate analyses, the impact that information has on death penalty support is tested, along with level of prior knowledge about the death penalty, personal characteristics (gender, age, political affiliation, race, being a criminal justice major, academic level), and religious factors. The results suggest that information on both deterrence and innocence leads to a reduction in death penalty support and views on the death penalty. Furthermore, the results suggest that the information presented may have varying effects among different subgroups of people.

Reporting Error in Household Gun Ownership in the 2000 General Social Survey

Legault, R. L. — Fri, 29 Feb 2008 13:54:15 PST

The use of surveys is one of the few ways to determine the extent and character of firearms ownership in the United States. The findings from such surveys have implications for both firearms research and firearms policy. Using data from the 2000 General Social Survey, the author examines the possibility of error in the reporting of household firearm ownership. Strong and significant differences in ownership reporting are found between married men and women, especially for those who were not socialized in part of a traditional "gun culture."

Gang Membership and Drug Involvement: Untangling the Complex Relationship

Bjerregaard, B. — Fri, 29 Feb 2008 13:54:15 PST

Previous research has consistently demonstrated a relationship between gang membership and involvement in illegal substances. In addition, researchers have noted that gang members are frequently more heavily involved in drug sales, which often lead to increases in violent behaviors. Most of this research, however, is either cross-sectional or ethnographic in nature, and therefore does not reveal the causal nature of these relationships. This research attempts to establish the temporal ordering of these relationships while controlling for a variety of relevant variables and to determine whether the relationships between drug involvement and violence differ for gang members versus nongang members. The findings indicate that gang membership is weakly associated with drug involvement, including both usage and sales. This involvement, however, does not appear to be related to assaults. Results suggest that gang membership is not determinative of drug involvement among a national random sample of youth.

The Impact of the Taser on Suspect Resistance: Identifying Predictors of Effectiveness

White, M. D., Ready, J. — Tue, 26 Feb 2008 13:32:23 PST

Despite the Taser’s increasing popularity among police agencies, questions have been raised concerning the weapon’s use and effectiveness as well as its potential to cause serious injury or death. This article examines all Taser deployments by the New York City Police Department from 2002 to 2005 ( N = 375) and uses two multivariate approaches—logistic regression and chi-square automatic interaction detection—to identify predictors of Taser effectiveness, measured as continued suspect resistance and officer satisfaction. Findings indicate that several factors are associated with reduced effectiveness, including suspect body weight (more than 200 pounds), drug and alcohol use, physical violence, and close distance (3 feet or less) between the officer and the suspect. Although this study represents a preliminary effort at identifying predictors of Taser effectiveness, there are clear training and policy implications for police departments.